Project Report on K.W.H. Meters

A SUMMER TRAINING carte ON K. W. H. METERS Prep ard by - Devesh Kumar, 303956 (3rd year) t qualified of contents * Certificate * Ack right awayledgement * Introduction of learn * ships fel downheartedship Profile * Products of BENTEX * Quality indemnity and fermentes of BENTEX * galvanising dexterity clip * Direct present-day(prenominal) (DC) * Alternating forward-looking (AC) * Unit of bill * Others Unit of criterion * fonts of beats 1. Electro robotlike molar concent balancens 2. electronic cadences * Communication * Solid verbalise cast * Multiple responsibility (variable vagabond) metres * domesticated play * get together kingdom Commercial rangeout * doohickey expertness touchst sensations * In individualal straining of book of facts firm exactlyton social occasion video display * adroit clips * Pre requitalment heartbeats * quantify of day mensurationing * force out exportationing mebibyteing * Ownership * Location * Customer unlade and metreing equation * Tempering and security * self-importance evaluation ACKNOW produceGEMENT I am very thankful to Mr. A. K. shri hugeava (GM/ SPD) for providing Me the opportunity to support the practical instruct in the Systems production Division (SPD) of SKN Bentex Limited at a get-goer military position the watch of Mr. S. C. Gupta (CM). They solely guided me from ime to finale and gave me dynamic ideas and suggestions by which I am able to complete my education advantagefully. I be founts want to thank tout ensemble the visible(a) and non-visible hands, which helped me to complete the practical develop with slap-up success. Introduction of training development is a process of eruditeness. didactics is an organized routine during which people learn knowledge and accomplishment for the definite purpose. It is a short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized part in which non-managerial personnel learn adept knowledge and skills for adefinite purpose.It refers to instruction in good and mechanical outlets the likes of operation of a work. It is for a short era and for a limited job think purpose. Training is very difficult from education. Training is vocational where as education is general. Training is job-oriented whereas education is person-oriented. However, it is difficult in figure to unalikeiate among education and training beca drop in some cases several(prenominal)(prenominal) of them egestsimultaneously. The two atomic number 18 complementary and both involve developmentof talent and kind authorization. Gener every last(predicate)y, both level necessitate training.Training is not something that is d cardinal once to new employees it memorises to be d wiz perpetu both(a)y. Importance of training Training leads to spiriteder productivity. It leads to correct topping of work. It leads to hail reduction. It leads to high motivation and team spirit of employees. The organi zational climate gets improved. It leads to self-satisfaction of the employees. direction gets voidd. It leads to good cor contain relation surrounded by employer and employee. It leads to development of new skills in the employees. r all(prenominal) of pass trainingThis summer training programs ar intentional for the students to master their technical skills. this summer training should hold the avocation intentions- * match courses of study with the management industry or say-so work place ope pass judgment its business or work employ engine room. * work on implementing what has been learned in intrinsicise or college. The engineering and professional courses including MCA, B. E. , B. TECH, BCA amongst opposite energize undergraduates needing internship in fields of ready reck iodiner science, galvanising and electronics, mechanical, civil, bio informatics, and so forthteraThe students for professional programs argon call for as apart of courses to be ar up under a few weeks the individuals tastes by amend their experience and making them r all(prenominal) agood enough troupe or workplace just in cartridge clip. This training evoke result in learning of circularize source applied science as a purposer of technology. That technology grass be applied to improve the college infra-structure. The objective of training in innovative mooring Practice is to go by a status about the organization and surgical procedure of all the aras of management in an industrial unit. Comp either profileA journey that started 46years fundament at BENTEX kelsons, forthwith has r each(prenominal)ed new high in guests delight . During the Years ,it has achieved milest sensations one after the new(prenominal) and established its forte in galvanical Industry with far-flung trust good entrust. Driven by the upright passion , exceptional foresight and acumen, Bentex has develop a pertain to reckon with the f police forceless performance o f products like starters, heartbeats, MCBs and flip-flop slope etc. These Products argon manufactured in state-of-the-art gear up and passed by means of stringent bore retard tests. Not to mention , Bentex products be governd among the outstrip in industry.Little surprise that BENTEX KELSONS products gestate crook crosswise barriers to reach all corners of India and as well Sri Lank, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Nepal etc. The Other Strength of the smart set is its vast presence through 750strong dealers network, which modifys the smart set to encounter ingests of any magnitude. At BENTEX KELSONS , The relentless hunting is to exceed all expectations of consumptioners. and that is indeed the devotion behind its growth. Thriving on technology and innovation, we ar an eminent manufacturer of grant quality precision components of p standic and safe device for tractors, automobile and engineering industry.We attri thate our success to sharp business acumen and semip recious experience of our work force. Durability, high precision, superior quality, consistent performance & smooth terminate atomic number 18 the hallmark of our products. We draw consistently make upd our client base by coming together the client needs in terms of appeal and performance goals. Our weapon shop is equipped with fully spontaneous injection molding machines of gold coin, all plas and IHI mend of several(a) capacities. We hold in facilities for unhearable & hot plate welding having our give birth tool room with Electra spark eroding machine to make moulds in-house.We argon O. E. M to many automobile, auto electrical, tractor and early(a) re droped manufacturers and worry to serve our clients by leaveinging custom molded rubber and plastic components of high precision and best quality. divulge of chief in operation(p) officer Mr. S. C. Gupta Year of Est. 1983 Primary Business Type Manufacturers & Exporters Products We Offer Impellers, Oil Seals, Pl astic machine Components, Plastic Industrial Products, Plastic Tractor Parts, arctic Bellows, Rubber Hose Pipes. Products of BENTEX Fly pedal * Reducton gear misfortune * Pinion bear * Straightening machine * Mill stand * geargond wheel coupling * Roll * Foundation running * Pusher and ejector * V roast pulley * Shearing machine * forget me drug shear * Roller guide box and twist pipe * Bullet lop * Pinch roll * Twisting machine * Gears * End skid * Rotary dress swivel * Universal couplings * Horizontal snip Quality Policy / Processes SKN-BENTEX Group products atomic number 18 at the forefront of innovation in industrial and agricultural field for security department and control of Electric Motor.We atomic number 18 the pioneers and leadership in our field with latest external engineering products establish on the valets best technology since last quartet decades. SKN-BENTEX Group has a comfortable history of success, which has been achieved through dedica tion, teamwork and visionary mentation and sincere service of pride in result oriented performance. SKN-BENTEX Group has been regularly restructuring to set up state-of-the-art electrical products manufactured at their own schemets under strict quality control threadbare.In this befuddle , close to of group companies adopted internationalist Quality Standard and have been sensible for ISO-9001 Certification and products are overly functional on ISI-Marked. The SKN-BENTEX Group of Companies in use(p) in wide range of products and has mainly tercet subgroups of electrical product range much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as SKN, SKN Bentex Linger BENTEX-Linger with their separate products situation and SKN-BENTEX Group is a collection of comminuteder companies specialist in a specific range of products. Besides this SKN-BENTEX group engaged in the field of, LPG Home Appliances, LPG Regulators, create Construction and Export Activities.The complete manufactur ing operation, trade and installation Services of the company are certified under ISO 9001 2000. The company has Enunciated the following quality policy to meet guest needs and expectations Through deliver of quality products and run. BENTEX is committed to strive for leadership in the product marketed by the way of continuous improvements in the quality of its products and services and meeting the consumers needs in fourth dimension and every sentence at a militant Price.These shall be achieved through continuous upgrading of technology and process improvement by involving all the employees, vendors, dealers and nodes. Quality is our elemental business formula. concomitant chart - Year of Establishment 1983 personality of Business Manufacturer, Exporter Number of Employees 51 to speed of light People Major Markets Indian Subcontinent, eastern United States Asia, Middle vitamin E and randomness East Asia Quality objective - * On succession delivery of defect free products. Providing potent customer support. * Continual improvement of processes. * melioration of infrastructure. * Development of human resources. Electricity euphony An electrical strength pulsation or strength clock time is a device that g all oernment notes the essence of electric ability consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically force played device. Electricity meters are typically calibrated in cathexis units, the close coarse one being the kilowatt hour kWh. semestrialal cultures of electric meters establishes billing cycles and muscle employ during a cycle.In scenerys when nothing savings during victor mensess are desired, meters whitethorn handbill gather up, the upper limit use of fountain in some interval. Time of day metering allows electric evaluate to be changed during a day, to rule book utilisation during blossom high-cost periods and off-peak, turn away-cost, periods. Also, in some areas meters have relays for g uide response shedding of slews during peak incubus periods. (analog electrical energy meter Typical br early(a)hood Ameri jackpot domestic) (Typical North Ameri fecal matter domestic anatomyal electrical energy meter) Direct menstruum (DC)As technical use of electric cypher spread in the 1880s, it became increasingly important that an electric capacity meter, stock(a)ised to the accordinglyly existing gunmanconade meters, was required to properly bill customers for the cost of expertness, quite of billing for a stock-still number of lamps per calendar month. Many experimental cases of meter were developed. Edison at prototypal of all worked on a DC electromechanical meter with a direct reading annals, but alternatively developed an electrochemical metering system, which use an electrolytic condenser cell to coreize certain consumption.At periodic intervals the plates were removed, weighed, and the customer billed. The electrochemical meter was labor-int ensive to read and not vigorous bona fide by customers. In 1885 Ferranti introduceed a hectogram labor meter with a register similar to gas meters this had the advantage that the consumer could well read the meter and verify consumption. The first accurate, reputationing electricity consumption meter was a DC meter by Dr Hermann Aaron, who patented it in 1883. Hugo Hurst of the British ordinary Electric Company introduced it mer derrieretilely into enormous Britain from 1888. heartbeats had been utilise prior to this, but they measurable the rate of zilch consumption at that particular moment, i. e. the electric range. Aarons meter record the broad(a) energy apply everyplace time, and showed it on a series of time controls. In the USA, Elcho Thomson perfected his enter wattmeter in 1889. Alternating contemporary (AC) The first sample of the AC kilowatt-hour meter produced on the terms of Hungarian Baths patent and named after him was presented by the Ganz Wo rks at the Frankfurt unclouded in the autumn of 1889, and the first inference kilowatt-hour meter was already marketed by the pulverization at the end of the equal year.These were the first alternate(a)- underway watt meters, know by the name of Blathy-meters. The AC kilowatt hour meters utilize at present operate on the same principle as Blathys original invention, Also close to 1889, Elihu Thomson of the Ameri coffin nail ecumenical Electric company developed a recording watt meter (watt-hour meter) base on an ironless commentator motor. This meter overcame the disadvantages of the electrochemical symbol and could operate on both alternating or direct flow rate.In 1894 Oliver Shallenberger of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation applied the trigger principle previously apply, unless in AC ampere-hour meters to produce a watt-hour meter of the un manikind electromechanical form, using an inductive reasoning magnetic disk whose whirlingal speed was made proportio nal to the advocate in the circuit. The Blathy meter was similar to Shallenberger and Thomson meter in that they are two- mannikin motor meter. Although the induction meter would solely work on alternating genuine, it eliminated the delicate and troublesome commutator of the Thomson design.Shallenberger fell ill and was unable to complicate his initial oversized and difficult design, although he did excessively develop a polyphase version. Unit of measuring (Panel-mounted loyal state electricity meter, connected to a 2 MVA electricity substation. Remote current and potentiality sensors send packing be read and programmed farly by modem and locally by infra-red. The readiness with two dots is the infra-red port. Tamper-evident pestles crumb be seen) Panel-mounted solid state electricity meter, connected to a 2 MVA electricity substation. Remote current and electric potential sensors fecal matter be read and programmed aloofly by modem and locally by infra-red.The c ircle with two dots is the infra-red port. Tamper-evident seals potty be seen. The close harsh unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour kWh, which is jibe to the nitty-gritty of energy utilise by a hindrance of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 watt seconds. some(prenominal) electricity companies use the SI mega joule instead. Demand is usually metrical in watts, but bonnyd over a period, most a great deal a quarter or half hour. Reactive owner is mensural in thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours, (kvarh). By convention, a follow or inductive subvert, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as a motor, pull up stakes have positive reactive proponent.A leading, or capacitive load, exit have prejudicious reactive military force. Volt-amperes measures all billet passed through a dispersion network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean- red-blooded volts and amperes. Distortion of the electric current by scores is measured in several ways. military group agent is the ratio of tolerant (or actually billet) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading top executive factor, and an inductive load has a lagging origin factor. A purely resistive load ( such(prenominal) as a strand lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a index factor of 1.Current harmonics are a measure of distortion of the thrive form. For example, electronic loads such as computer motive supplies draw their current at the electric potential peak to fill their internal depot elements. This send word lead to a solid voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening produces odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but whitethorn interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to dec within specified limits.Ot her units of measurement In addition to metering based on the enumerate of energy apply, other types of metering are visible(prenominal). bars which measured the amount of outpouring (coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour meters, were used in the early years of electrification. These were dependent upon the supply voltage stay changeless for accurate measurement of energy customs, which was not a likely condition with most supplies. some(prenominal) meters measured only the length of time for which beam passed, with no measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current being made.These were only fit for constant-load applications. Nevery type is likely to be used today. Types of meters Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) and finding the product of these to give instantaneous electrical forefinger (watts) which is thus integrated against time to give energy used (joules, kilowatt-hours etc. ). Met ers for milder services (such as crushed residential customers) can be connected directly in-line betwixt source and customer.For giganticr loads, more than about 200 ampere of load, current transformers are used, so that the meter can be located other than in line with the service conductors. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic. Electromechanical meters The most common type of electricity meter is the electromechanical induction watt-hour meter. The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an aluminum criminal record which is made to exclude at a speed proportional to the mogulfulness. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy function.The voltage hand-build consumes a modest and relatively constant amount of billet, typically around 2 watts which is not registered on the meter. The current kink likewise consumes a small amount of power in proportion to the square of the curr ent flowing through it, typically up to a couple of watts at full load, which is registered on the meter. The metallic dish antennaus is acted upon by two curves. One pealing is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic state of flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage helix is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag coil.This produces eddy currents in the platter and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the magnetic disk in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an fence force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opponent forces results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power being used. The disc drives a register apparatus which integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in send to render a measu rement of the fall energy used over a period of time.The type of meter described above is used on a sensation-phase AC supply. Different phase configurations use superfluous voltage and current coils. (Mechanism of electromechanical induction meter. 1 potential difference coil many turns of fine conducting fit out encased in plastic, connected in parallel with load. 2 Current coil three turns of thick electrify, connected in series with load. 3 Stator concentrates and border magnetic field. 4 Aluminum rotor disc. 5 rotor brake magnets. 6 spindle with worm gear. 7 display dials note that the 1/10, 10 and k dials splay clockwise fleck the 1, hundred and 10000 dials rotate counter-clockwise)Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 230/400 V supply. Horizontal aluminum rotor disc is visible in center of meter. The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register. The register is a series of dials which re cord the amount of energy used. The dials whitethorn be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a single(a) number is shown through a meanderow in the face of the meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer hints each figure of speech.With the dial pointer type, side by side(p) pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the appurtenance mechanism. The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol which is addicted in units of watt-hours per revolution. The observe 7. 2 is commonly seen. Using the harbor of , one can determine their power consumption at any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch. If the time in seconds taken by the disc to complete one revolution is , then the power in watts is . For example, if , as above, and one revolution took place in 14. seconds, the power is 1800 watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of househo ld devices by flip outing them on one by one. most(prenominal) domestic electricity meters must(prenominal) be read manually, whether by a articulation of the power company or by the customer. an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.Where the customer reads the meter, the reading may be supplied to the power company by headphone, post or over the internet. The electricity company volition averagely require a visit by a company representative at least per annum in order to verify customer-supplied readings and to make a basic safety nail of the meter. In an induction type meter, filch is a phenomenon that can adversely assume accuracy, that occurs when the meter disc rotates continuously with potential appl ied and the load terminals open circuited. A test for error due to creeping is called a creep test. Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 230/400 V supply. Horizontal aluminum rotor disc is visible in center of meter) electronic meters electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and can also fetch readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as scoop shovelimum demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours. elemental pack diagram of an electronic energy meter) Communication Remote meter reading is a practical example of telemetry. It saves the cost of a human meter ratifier and the resulting mistakes, but it also allows more measurements, and remote provisioning. Many trendy meters now include a cast to interrupt or re retention service. Historically, rotating meters could proclaim their power education remotely, using a pair of linkup closures attached to a KYZ line. A KYZ porthole is a kind of quadrature encoder. In a KYZ interface, the Y and Z wires are reverse contacts, shorted to K for half of a rotors circumference.To measure the rotor direction, the Z sign is limb by 90 degrees from the Y. When the rotor rotates in the opposite direction, showing export of power, the order reverses. The time between pulses measures the demand. The number of pulses is total power usance. KYZ railroad sidings were historically attached to totalize relays feeding a totalize so that many meters could be read all at once in one place. KYZ outputs are also the classic way of attaching electric meters to programmable logic controllers, HVACs or other control systems.Some modern meters also supply a contact closure that warns when the meter detects a demand near a high electricity tariff , to improve demand side management. Some meters have an open collector output that gives 32-100 ms pulses for a constant amount of used electrical energy. Usually 1000-10000 pulses per kWh. Output is limited to max 27 V DC and 27 mA DC. The output unremarkably follows the boom 43864 stock(a). Often, meters designed for semi-automated reading have a resultant port on that communicates by infrared LED through the faceplate of the meter.In some apartment buildings, a similar talks communicatings protocol is used, but in a pumped(p) bus using a serial current loop to connect all the meters to a single fire hydrant. The plug is often near the mailboxes. In the European Union, the most common infrared and protocol is gladiola, a simplified subset of mode C of IEC 61107. In the U. S. and Canada, the favored infrared protocol is ANSI C12. 18. Some industrial meters use a protocol for programmable logic controllers (Modbus). One protocol proposed for this purpose is DLMS/COSEM whi ch can operate over any medium, including serial ports.The entropy can be transmitted by Zigbee, Wi-Fi, telephone lines or over the power lines themselves. Some meters can be read over the internet. Other more modern protocols are also becoming widely used. Electronic meters now use low-power radio, GSM, GPRS, Bluetooth, IrDA, as well as RS-485 wired link. The meters can now store the entire usage profiles with time stamps and relay them at a penetrate of a vent. The demand readings stored with the profiles accurately indicate the load requirements of the customer.This load profile data is processed at the utilities for billing and intend purposes. AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) and RMR (Remote Meter Reading) describe confused systems that allow meters to be checked without the need to send a meter lector out. An electronic meter can transmit its readings by telephone line or radio to a underlying billing office. Automatic meter reading can be done with GSM (Global System for officious Communications) modems, one is attached to each meter and the other is placed at the central public-service corporation(prenominal) office. Solid-state designAs in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a processing and communication engine (i. e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as RTC, LCD display, communication ports/modules and so on. The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage reference, samplers and quantizes followed by an ADC segmentation to yield the digitized equivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a digital Signal Processor to calculate the diverse metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.The largest source of semipermanent errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by the precision of the voltage reference. two of these pull up stakes with temperature as well, and vary wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterizing and compensating for these is a major(ip) part of meter design. The processing and communication section has the responsibleness of calculating the unhomogeneous derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine. This also has the responsibility of communication using discordant protocols and interface with other add-on modules connected as slaves to it.RTC and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and communication section for diverse input/output functions. On a modern meter most if not all of this ordain be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the Real Time clock (RTC), LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital converters. (Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands) Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters Electricity retail merchants may wish to broadcast customers several(predicate) tariffs at different multiplication of the day to better reflect the costs of generation an d transmission.Since it is typically not cost effective to store significant amounts of electricity during a period of low demand for use during a period of high demand, costs will vary significantly depending on the time of day. Low cost generation capability (base load) such as nuclear can take many hours to start, meaning a superfluity in measure of low demand, whereas high cost but conciliative generating capacity (such as gas turbines) must be kept available to oppose at a moments notice (spinning reserve) to peak demand, perhaps being used for a few minutes per day, which is very expensive.Some triplex tariff meters use different tariffs for different amounts of demand. These are usually industrial meters. Domestic usage Domestic variable-rate meters generally consent two to three tariffs (peak, off-peak and articulatio humeri) and in such installations a simplex electromechanical time switch may be used. Historically, these have often been used in alliance with elect rical store heaters or hot water retentivity systems. Multiple tariffs are made easier by time of use (TOU) meters which incorporate or are connected to a time switch and which have multiple registers.Switching between the tariffs may happen via a radio-activated switch rather than a time switch to prevent monkey with a certain time switch to obtain twopennyer electricity. United Kingdom Radio-activated switching is common in the UK, with a wickednessly data signal sent within the long wave carrier of BBC Radio 4, 198kHz. The time of off-peak charging is usually seven hours between mid night and 7. 00am GMT, and this is designed to power storage heaters and immersion heaters. In the UK, such tariffs are branded Economy 7 or White Meter.The popularity of such tariffs has declined in recent years, at least in the domestic market, due to the (perceived or real) deficiencies of storage heaters and the comparatively low cost of natural gas. An Economy 10 meter is also available, giving five hours of heating overnight, with boosts in mid-morning and mid-afternoon. some meters using Economy 7 switch the entire electricity supply to the cheaper rate during the 7 hour night time period, not just the storage heater circuit. The downside of this is that he twenty-four hours rate will be significantly higher, and standing(a) charges may be a petty(a) higher too. For instance, normal rate electricity may be 9p per kWh, whereas Economy 7s daytime rate powerfulness be 14 to 17 p per kWh, but only 5. 43p per kWh at night. Timer switches installed on washables machines, tumble dryers, dishwashers and immersion heaters may be set so that they switch on only when the rate is lower. (Economy 7 Meter and Teleswitcher) Commercial usage Large commercial and industrial premises may use electronic meters which record power usage in blocks of half an hour or less.This is because most electricity grids have demand surges throughout the day, and the power company may wish to give footing incentives to large customers to undertake demand at these times. These demand surges often correspond to meal times or, famously, to advertisements in popular television programmers. Appliance energy meters Plug in electricity meters (or Plug load meters) measure energy used by individual mechanisms. at that place are a variety of puts available on the market today but they all work on the same basic principle.The meter is plugged into an outlet, and the appliance to be measured is plugged into the meter. such(prenominal) meters can help in energy conservation by identifying major energy users, or devices that consume excessive understudy power. A power meter can often be borrowed from the local power authorities or a local public library. In-home energy use displays A potentially powerful means to reduce household energy consumption is to put up convenient real-time feedback to users so they can change their energy using behavior. tardily, cheap energy feedba ck displays have become available.A study using a consumer-readable meter in 500 Ontario homes by Hydro One showed an average 6. 5% drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control group. Hydro One by and by offered free power monitors to 30,000 customers based on the success of the pilot. Projects such as Google tycoon Meter, take information from a adroit meter and make it more quick available to users to help encourage conservation. able meters Smart meters go a spirit further than simple AMR ( self-locking meter reading).They offer additional functionality including a real-time or near real-time reads, power outage notification, and power quality monitoring. They allow bell setting agencies to introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and the season. These price differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak lopping), reducing the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher pol luting and costly to operate natural gas powered piker plants. The feedback they provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption.Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically determine the number and type of appliances in a residence, how much energy each uses and when. This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys of energy use. It eliminates the need to put timers on all of the appliances in a house to determine how much energy each uses. Prepayment meters The standard business model of electricity retailing involves the electricity company billing the customer for the amount of energy used in the previous month or quarter.In some countries, if the retailer believes that the customer may not pay the bill, a prepayment meter may be installed. This requires the customer to make advance payment to begin with electricity can be used. If the available credit is exhausted then the supply of electricity is cut off by a relay. (Prepayment meter and magnetic prevention tokens, from a rented accommodation in the UK. The button labeled A displays information and statistics such as current tariff and rest credit. The button labeled B activates a small amount of emergency credit should the customer run out)In the UK, mechanical prepayment meters used to be common in rented accommodation. Disadvantages of these include the need for regular visits to remove cash, and risk of exposure of theft of the cash in the meter. Modern solid-state electricity meters, in conjunction with smart cards, have removed these disadvantages and such meters are commonly used for customers considered to be a poor credit risk. In the UK, one system is the Pay acid network, In some cases, prepayment meters have not been sure by customers.There are various groups, such as the Standard shipping Specification (STS) association, which promote common standards for prepayment metering systems crosswise manufacturers. where rec hargeable tokens (Quantum cards for natural gas, or plastic keys for electricity) can be starchy with whatever money the customer has available. Recently smartcards are introduced as much reliable tokens that allows two way data telephone exchange between meter and the utility. (A prepayment key) In South Africa, Sudan and Northern Ireland pre paid meters are recharged by entering a unique, encoded twenty digit number using a keypad.This makes the tokens, fundamentally a slip of paper, very cheap to produce. Around the world, experiments are going on, particularly in developing countries, to test pre-payment systems. In some cases, prepayment meters have not been accepted by customers. There are various groups, such as the Standard transit Specification (STS) association, which promote common standards for prepayment metering systems across manufacturers. Prepaid meters using the STS standard are used in many countries. Time of day meteringTime of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or Seasonal Time of Day (SToD), metering involves dividing the day, month and year into tariff s oodles and with higher rates at peak load periods and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods. While this can be used to automatically control usage on the part of the customer (resulting in automatic load control), it is often simply the customers responsibility to control his own usage, or pay accordingly (voluntary load control). This also allows the utilities to plan their transmission infrastructure appropriately.See also Demand-side instruction (DSM). TOD metering normally splits rates into an placement of multiple segments including on-peak, off-peak, mid-peak or shoulder, and scathing peak. A typical arrangement is a peak occurring during the day (non-holiday years only), such as from 1 pm to 9 pm Monday through Friday during the summer and from 630 am to 12 noon and 5 pm to 9 pm during the winter. more complex arrangements include the use of critica l peaks which occur during high demand periods. The times of peak demand/cost will vary in different markets around the world.Large commercial users can purchase power by the hour using either forecast pricing or real time pricing. Prices range from we pay you to take it (negative) to $1000/MWh (100 cents/kWh). Some utilities allow residential customers to pay hourly rates, such as Illinois, which uses day ahead pricing. Power export metering Many electricity customers are instal their own electricity generating equipment, whether for reasons of economy, redundancy or environmental reasons. When a customer is generating more electricity than required for his own use, the surplus may be exported back to the power grid.Customers that generate back into the grid usually must have special equipment and safety devices to protect the grid components (as well as the customers own) in case of faults (electrical short circuits) or maintenance of the grid (say voltage potential on a downed l ine going into an exporting customers facility). This exported energy may be accounted for in the simplest case by the meter running backwards during periods of net export, thus reducing the customers recorded energy usage by the amount exported.This in effect results in the customer being paid for his/her exports at the full retail price of electricity. Unless equipped with a detent or equivalent, a standard meter will accurately record power flow in each direction by simply running backwards when power is exported. Such meters are no time-consuming legal in the UK, but instead a meter capable of individually measuring imported and exported energy is required. Where allowed by law, utilities maintain a profitable borderline between the price of energy delivered to the consumer and the rate credited for consumer-generated energy that flows back to the grid.Lately, transfer sources typically originate from renewable sources (e. g. , wind turbines, photovoltaic cells), or gas or s team turbines, which are often gear up in cogeneration systems. Another potential upload source that has been proposed is plug-in hybrid car batteries (vehicle-to-grid power systems). This requires a smart grid, which includes meters that measure electricity via communication networks that require remote control and give customers timing and pricing options.Vehicle-to-grid systems could be installed at workplace parking lots and garages and at park and rides and could help drivers charge their batteries at home at night when off-peak power prices are cheaper, and receive bill crediting for selling excess electricity back to the grid during high-demand hours. Ownership Following the deregulating of electricity supply markets in many countries (e. g. , UK), the company responsible for an electricity meter may not be obvious.Depending on the arrangements in place, the meter may be the property of the meter Operator, electricity distributor, the retailer or for some large users of ele ctricity the meter may belong to the customer. The company responsible for reading the meter may not always be the company which owns it. Meter reading is now sometimes subcontracted and in some areas the same person may read gas, water and electricity meters at the same time. Location The status of an electricity meter varies with each installation. practicable locations include on a utility pole serving the property, in a street-side abinet (meter box) or inside the premises adjacent to the consumer unit / distribution board. Electricity companies may prefer external locations as the meter can be read without gaining advance to the premises but external meters may be more prone to vandalism. (Current transformers used as part of metering equipment for three-phase 400 A electricity supply. The fourth soggy wire does not require a current transformer because current cannot flow in this wire without also flowing in one of the three phase wires) Current transformers license the me ter to be located remotely from the current-carrying conductors.This is common in large installations. For example a substation serving a single large customer may have metering equipment installed in a cabinet, without bringing heavy cables into the cabinet. Customer drop and metering equation Since electrical standards vary in different regions, customer drops from the grid to the customer also vary depending on the standards and the type of installation. There are several common types of communitys between a grid and a customer. Each type has a different metering equation. Customer supplies may be single-phase or three-phase.In the United States and Canada, three-wire single phase is common for residential and small commercial customers. Three phase supplies may be three wire, or four wire (with a system neutral). Blondels theorem states that for any system with N current-carrying conductors, that N-1 measuring elements are sufficient to measure electrical energy. This indicates that different metering is needed, for example, for a three-phase three-wire system than for a three-phase four-wire (with neutral) system. In North America, it is common for electricity meters to plug into a standardized socket outdoors, on the side of a building.This allows the meter to be replaced without perturbing the wires to the socket, or the occupant of the building. Some sockets may have a bypass while the meter is removed for service. The amount of electricity used without being recorded during this small time is considered insignificant when compared to the inconvenience which might be caused to the customer by cutting off the electricity supply. Most electronic meters in North America use a serial protocol. In many other countries the supply and load terminals are in the meter housing itself. Cables are connected directly to the meter.In some areas the meter is outside, often on a utility pole. In others, it is inside the building in a niche. If inside, it may share a data fellowship with other meters. If it exists, the share connection is often a small plug near the post box. The connection is often EIA-485 or infra-red with a serial protocol such as IEC 62056. In 2010, networking to meters is rapidly changing. The most common schemes front to combine an existing national standard for data (e. g. ANSI C12. 19 or IEC 62056) operating via the internet protocol with a small circuit board that does either power line communication, or ties to a digital mobile phone network. A commercial power meter) Tampering and security Meters can be manipulated to make them under-register, effectively allowing power use without paying for it. This theft or fraud can be vulnerable as well as dishonest. Power companies often install remote-reporting meters specifically to enable remote detection of tampering, and specifically to watch over energy theft. The change to smart power meters is useful to stop energy theft. When tampering is detected, the normal tacti c, legal in most areas of the USA, is to switch the subscriber to a tampering tariff charged at the meters maximum designed current.At US$ 0. 095/kWh, a standard residential 50A meter causes a legally collectible charge of about US$ 5,000. 00 per month. Meter readers are trained to spot signs of tampering, and with crude mechanical meters, the maximum rate may be charged each billing period until the tamper is removed, or the service is disconnected. A common method of tampering on quondam(a) meters is to attach magnets to the outside of the meter. These magnetically prang up the coils or current transformers, preventing the alternating current from forming eddy currents in the rotor, or generate voltages in the current transformer.Rectified DC loads cause mechanical (but not electronic) meters to under-register. DC current does not cause the coils to make eddy currents in the disk, so this causes reduced rotation and a lower bill. Some combinations of capacitive and inductive l oad can interact with the coils and mass of a rotor and cause reduced or reverse motion. The owner of the meter normally secures the meter against tampering. Revenue meters mechanisms and connections are sealed. Meters may also measure VAR-hours (the reflected load), neutral and DC currents (elevated by most electrical tampering), close magnetic fields, etc.Even simple mechanical meters can have mechanical flags that are dropped by magnetic tampering or large DC currents. Newer computerized meters usually have counter-measures against tampering. AMR (Automated Meter Reading) meters often have sensors that can report opening of the meter cover, magnetic anomalies, surplus clock setting, glued buttons, A common method of tampering on older meters is to attach magnets to the outside of the meter. These magnetically saturate the coils or current transformers, preventing the alternating current from forming eddy currents in the rotor, or inducing voltages in the current transformer.Whe n tampering is detected, the normal tactic, legal in most areas of the USA, is to switch the subscriber to a tampering tariff charged at the meters maximum designed current. At US$ 0. 095/kWh, a standard residential 50A meter causes a legally collectible charge of about US$ 5,000. 00 per month. Meter readers are trained to spot signs of tampering, and with crude. inverted installation, reverse or switched phases etc. (A Duke Energy technician removes the tamper-proof seal from a electricity meter at a residence in Durham, brotherhood Carolina)Some tampers bypass the meter, wholly or in part. Safe tampers of this type normally increase the neutral current at the meter. Most split-phase residential meters in the United States are unable to detect neutral currents. However, modern tamper-resistant meters can detect and bill it at standard rates. Disconnecting a meters neutral continuative is unsafe because shorts can then pass through people or equipment rather than a metallic grou nd to the generator. A phantom loop connection via an earth ground is often much higher resistance than the metallic neutral connector. Even in hese cases, metering at the substation can alert the operator to tampering. Substations, interties and transformers normally have a high-accuracy meter for the area served. Power companies normally investigate discrepancies between the total billed and the total generated, in order to find and fix power distribution problems. These investigations are an effective method to line up tampering. In North America power thefts are often connected with interior marijuana grow operations. Narcotics detectives associate abnormally high power usage with the light source such operations require.Indoor marijuana growers alert of this are particularly motivated to fall away electricity simply to conceal their usage of it. Self evaluation This 42 days Industrial Training has led me to empathize the various designing, assembling and the manufacturing processes of equipments in the industry, BENTEX. It has also enhanced my knowledge about the functioning and management of an industry, which I am sure, will be beneficial to me in my career. Regards, Name Devesh Kumar Roll no. 303956 Branch digital electronics (3rd year) Institute C. R. R. I. T.